By Héribert‑Label Elisée Adjovi – President of the Xi’an Think Tank for Sino‑African Cooperation and Development, and President of the African Journalists Caucus for the Global South Community Destiny
Introduction The Communist Party of China (CPC) has played a decisive role in China’s modernization. Founded on July 1, 1921, it transformed a fragmented agricultural country into a global power in 105 years. This model, called “Chinese‑style modernization,” does not copy the West. It rests on a unique blend: the Party at the center, a mixed economy, the valorization of culture, and a civilizational vision. How did the Party create this tailor‑made modernization? And how does it differ from classical models? We will answer this dual question in six stages: ideological foundations, the Mao Zedong era, Deng Xiaoping’s reforms, adjustments under Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, the new era with Xi Jinping, and future challenges and prospects.
I. Foundations of the Communist Party of China 1. Adapting Marxism to China The CPC chose to anchor Marxism in Chinese realities, creating an ideological synthesis between revolution and tradition. Chairman Mao Zedong emphasized the link between theory and practice, giving birth to a “Sinicized” Marxism.
2. Building a Modern State The construction of a modern state has been the historical engine and ideological foundation of the CPC since 1949. This founding project revolves around the central role of the Party‑State, Chinese modernization, the socialist rule of law, governance, and social welfare.
3. A Firmly Established Power The Party became the pillar of modernization, controlling political, economic, and social institutions. Political stability became an asset, unlike the chaotic transitions observed elsewhere.
II. China under Chairman Mao Zedong
1. The Agrarian Revolution One of Mao Zedong’s landmark actions was the Agrarian Revolution, which transformed China’s social and economic structure. It unfolded in two major phases: land reform (1950–1953) and collectivization (1953–1958). With the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the CPC launched a vast land redistribution campaign. The goal was to eliminate landlords (the “class enemies”), abolish feudal systems, and redistribute farmland to poor peasants. Result: about 43% of cultivated land was redistributed to nearly 60% of the rural population, consolidating the CPC’s local authority. Collectivization followed: peasants were first grouped into elementary cooperatives (sharing tools and land), then into advanced cooperatives (land became collective property, and income was based solely on labor).
2. Heavy Industrialization Inspired by the USSR, China launched major industrial projects between 1949 and 1976. Heavy industrialization transformed China from an agrarian society into an industrial power. Initially based on the Soviet model (1950–1957), it later relied on the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962). The state prioritized steel, energy, and defense, financed by agriculture through a “scissors effect.” Despite rapid growth, this policy proved counterproductive.
3. Limits and Lessons To rapidly transform agrarian China into an industrial superpower, Mao launched the radical Great Leap Forward (1958–1962). Cooperatives merged into massive “People’s Communes” managing agriculture, local industry, education, militia, and administration. This economic utopia, combined with mismanagement and adverse weather, led to a devastating famine, causing tens of millions of deaths. In response, Mao initiated the Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966 to regain Party control and purge bourgeois and traditional influences. It plunged the country into chaos, caused millions of deaths, and deeply traumatized China. Mao’s death on September 9, 1976, and the arrest of the “Gang of Four” opened the way for Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms starting in 1978. Though the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution revealed the dangers of overly rapid modernization, they forged a strong national identity. Ultimately, Mao remains an emblematic figure of modern China, symbolizing a proud nation ready to embrace its destiny.
III. Deng Xiaoping’s Reforms 1. Toward a Socialist Market Economy In December 1978, Deng Xiaoping launched the “Reform and Opening‑Up” policy. Breaking with strict Maoist planning, he introduced a unique hybrid model, often called a “socialist market economy.” This transformation rested on three pillars: - Agricultural decollectivization: ending “People’s Communes” in favor of the “household responsibility system,” allowing peasants to sell surplus on free markets. - Opening to foreign capital: creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), notably Shenzhen (1978), to attract foreign investment. - State control maintained: combining market mechanisms with public ownership of strategic sectors.
2. Opening to the World China integrated into the global economy, becoming the “world’s factory.” This integration relied on: - SEZs attracting foreign direct investment through tax incentives and abundant labor. - WTO accession on December 11, 2001, enabling massive exports of manufactured goods. - Global subcontracting, with China assembling labor‑intensive parts of consumer and industrial goods.
3. Concrete Results Deng’s reforms lifted over 800 million Chinese out of extreme poverty. This transformation consolidated the CPC’s legitimacy, turning a struggling economy into a global power.
4. Comparison Abroad The CPC’s continued rule since 1949 ensured institutional stability and centralized direction. Unlike the abrupt transitions of post‑Soviet states, Beijing managed reforms progressively, avoiding state collapse and opening the economy without dismantling its administrative apparatus.
IV. China under Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao 1. The Three Represents under Jiang Zemin
The “Three Represents” marked a major evolution in CPC strategy, introduced by former President Jiang Zemin. It allowed the Party to broaden its social base by officially integrating private entrepreneurs and new elites, beginning with the 16th Party Congress in 2002. By incorporating new economic elites, the Party secured the support of key actors in modernization and China’s rapid growth. Rather than excluding capitalists, this strategy co‑opted them, transforming the CPC from a revolutionary party into a national governing party.
2. Scientific Development under Hu Jintao
Under former President Hu Jintao, emphasis was placed on innovation and sustainability, structured around the concept of scientific development and the rise of ecological civilization. Key pillars included: - Scientific development: also known as the Scientific Outlook on Development, officially adopted in 2007. It reoriented national strategy toward more balanced, inclusive, and people‑centered growth, correcting inequalities and environmental damage caused by the pursuit of GDP alone. - Independent innovation: strengthening technological innovation and fundamental research to make China an “innovative nation,” reducing dependence on foreign technologies. - Ecological civilization: first introduced in a key Party document at the 17th Congress, highlighting the urgency of investing in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and environmental protection to ensure sustainable development.
3. Social Balance Overall, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao implemented policies to address deep disparities born of the rapid growth of the 1990s and 2000s, while prioritizing social control and the survival of the CPC.
V. China in the Xi Jinping Era 1. A New Era “Xi Jinping Thought” guides China toward high‑quality development and qualitative modernization. Initiated during recent Party Congresses, this transition is built on strategic pillars: - Scientific and technological innovation: top priority to achieve strategic autonomy, develop advanced productive forces, and dominate cutting‑edge industries such as artificial intelligence and electric vehicles. - Green and ecological development: transition to an environmentally friendly model, investment in renewables, and pursuit of carbon neutrality goals. - Industrial modernization and the real economy: upgrading value chains, strengthening advanced manufacturing, and developing specialized services to modernize production. - Common prosperity and social well‑being: a people‑centered approach to reduce inequality, modernize agriculture and rural areas, and foster inclusive growth. - Opening and international cooperation: under Xi Jinping, China’s vision of openness has expanded from regional to global, based on multilateralism, open trade, and co‑development. It is structured around major initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative, the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, the Global Civilization Initiative, and the Global Governance Initiative, as well as forums like FOCAC, BRICS strengthening, and promotion of free trade.
2. Poverty Eradication In February 2021, China officially declared the eradication of extreme poverty for the year 2020. According to World Bank standards, this was one of the fastest and largest achievements in modern history, reached a decade ahead of the UN’s 2030 Agenda. Unsurprisingly, Xi Jinping’s Global Development Initiative, launched in 2021, has resonated strongly across the Global South and international institutions.
3. Technology and Innovation China is investing massively, with a plan of about US$295 billion to expand AI infrastructure and data centers. To meet electricity demand, Beijing is simultaneously investing hundreds of billions in ultra‑high voltage “Supergrid” networks and green energy.
4. Cultural Renaissance To extend global influence, the CPC promotes China’s millennia‑old civilizational heritage. By presenting this model as an alternative to Western liberalism, Beijing strengthens its soft power, especially among developing countries, while shaping its international image. Consequently, Xi Jinping’s Global Civilization Initiative, launched in 2023, has achieved remarkable success worldwide.
5. Strategic Governance The “Community of Shared Future for Mankind” is a central concept in CPC foreign policy and Chinese diplomacy. Promoted as a pillar of global governance, it encourages countries to jointly address transnational challenges (peace, security, development) while defending multilateralism. Developed and embodied by Xi Jinping since 2013, it has become a key reference in UN resolutions and official documents, materialized through major international initiatives and strengthened bilateral cooperation.
VI. Challenges and Prospects for China under the CPC 1. Aging Population China’s first major challenge is demographic: an aging population. This requires adjustments in social policy, focusing on universal social protection, family support, and migrant worker assistance. Key measures include: - Universal coverage: gradually extending social security to rural migrant workers, aiming to unify health and pension systems. - Demographic transition: investing in elderly care infrastructure to address aging accelerated by past birth‑limitation policies. - Worker protection: reassessing employee rights (leave, accident coverage, etc.) to match labor market evolution.
2. Environment Another major challenge is environmental sustainability. Energy transition is fundamental, allowing China to reconcile its role as the world’s leading manufacturer with reduced dependence on imported fossil fuels. This involves: - Renewable dominance: raising renewables to over 30.4% of the energy mix, capturing a major share of new global capacity. - Geostrategic independence: massively developing wind, solar, and advanced technologies to reduce reliance on foreign oil and gas. - Industrial leadership: advancing electric vehicles and energy storage infrastructure, which has reached 145 GW capacity, supporting new growth drivers.
3. Geopolitical Tensions China also faces intensifying strategic rivalry with the United States. To ensure autonomy, it strengthens technological independence, deploys economic tools to counter sanctions, and pursues active diplomacy to build alternative coalitions, especially with the Global South.
4. The 2049 Goal The CPC’s ultimate ambition is full modernization. By 2049, the centenary of the People’s Republic of China, it aims to transform China into a strong, prosperous, and culturally advanced modern socialist country. The “Centenary Goals” are structured in two phases: - Phase 1 (2020–2035): focused on “socialist modernization,” completing fundamental development across all domains. - Phase 2 (2035–2050): full transformation into a “modern socialist power,” a global leader in comprehensive strength and international influence.
ConclusionIn 105 years, the CPC has transformed China into a global power through a unique path of modernization. This model rests on political stability, economic growth, and cultural valorization. It offers an endogenous alternative to Western models, both internally—through social and economic transformation—and externally—by proposing a new model in the international system. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, the chief architect of China’s “opening and reform” in the new era, the CPC continues to shape the country’s trajectory toward global prominence.